Names: Biko, Stephen Bantu
Born: 18 December 1946, Tylden, Eastern Province (now Eastern Cape), South Africa
Died: 12 September 1977, Pretoria, South Africa
In summary: Biko was a man of many talents: Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) leader, South Africa’s most influential and radical student leader in the 1970s, law student, banned person, political prisoner. Biko was killed in detention.
Stephen (Steve) Bantu Biko was born in Tylden in the Eastern Province (now Eastern Cape) on 18 December 1946.Biko's early life was modest. His main pre-occupation was the pursuit of academic excellence, which was in line with his father's expectations. His father encouraged all his children to pursue an education as the only possible route to upward social movement and independence. Biko started his education around 1952 (the exact date varies from source to source) against the background of the Bantu Education Act - introduced to stifle Black education. Essentially, the Act was designed to provide Blacks with sufficient education which would not allow "a future without back-breaking labour." Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, who authored the Bill, said "There is no place for him [the Bantu] in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour."
Exposed to this type of education since primary school which he attended, such as Brownlee Primary, Charles Morgan Higher Primary, Lovedale Institute (which was eventually closed due to student protest) and finally, St Francis (a Catholic boarding School outside Durban), his political orientation emerged. While Biko was a student at Lovedale, his brother was arrested and jailed for nine months during a government crackdown for being a suspected member ofPOQO (later APLA), the military wing of the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC). Biko was interrogated by the police and subsequently expelled from Lovedale after only attending for three months. This incident inculcated in Biko a "strong resentment toward white authority", which would shape his political career.
After Biko's expulsion from school, his career was characterised by political activism which culminated in him engaging in educating and making Black people conscious of their plight under an oppressive system. His untiring commitment to Black Consciousness is the legacy he has bequeathed to South Africa's struggle for freedom.
After matriculating from St Francis, he enrolled at the University of Natal (now University of kwaZulu-Natal). It was here that Biko's political activism began to blossom. He devoted much of his time to the cause of Black emancipation. At university his desire to study medicine was hampered by his constant involvement in political activities and organisations such as NUSAS. He became so immersed in politics that his performance declined to levels that compelled university authorities to deregister him. This happened at a time when he had also grown critical of the generally anti-Black structure of NUSAS. Due to the fact that NUSAS's power base was centred at the major White universities, it was virtually impossible for Black students to achieve positions of leadership. In fact, a NUSAS leader, Clive Nettleton, accused the organisation of "preaching the ideal of non-racism" while some members were "unable to live out their ideals." Thus, in 1968 Biko established a new all-Black organisation, the South African Students Organisation (SASO). He was elected as its first President in July 1969. One year later he was appointed Publicity Secretary of the organisation.
SASO adopted a new pro-Black and radical doctrine that became known as Black Consciousness which, by Biko's own definition, was the "cultural and political revival of an oppressed people."
A nation weeps. Mourners gather to pay their last respects as Steve Biko's body lies in state in his home before the funeral, attended by 20,000 mourners at King William's Town, November 1977. Photo: Bailey's African History Archives)
By 1971, the Black Consciousness Movement had grown into a formidable force throughout the country. In an attempt to reform SASO (which originally comprised students) and incorporate an adult element, Biko established the Black People's Convention (BPC) as well as Black Community Programmes (BCP).
The development of the BCM clearly threatened the establishment. In 1973, he was banned and confined to the magisterial district of King William's Town, his birth place. Among other things, the banning prohibited him from teaching or making public addresses (or speaking to more than one person at a time), preventing him from entering educational institutions and ordering him to report to the local police station once every week. In spite of being banned, Biko continued to advance the work of Black Consciousness. For instance, he established an Eastern Cape branch of BCP and through BCP he organised literacy and dressmaking classes as well as health education programmes. Quite significantly, he set up a health clinic outside King William's Town for poor rural Blacks who battled to access city hospitals.
The banning and detention of several SASO and BPC leaders under the Terrorism Act, for organizing a rally in support of Mozambique’s FRELIMO threatened to cripple the Black Consciousness Movement. However, the accused used the seventeen-month trial that followed as a platform to publicise the case of Black Consciousness. Although they were found guilty and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment for revolutionary conspiracy they were later acquitted. Their convictions further strengthened the Black Consciousness movement. The repression instituted under the Terrorism Act caused Blacks to lose sympathy with moderate revolutionary policies, leading to increased militancy and hope for emancipation. During the Soweto riots of June 1976 there were violent clashes between high school students (protesting the use of Afrikaans as medium of academic instruction) and police, marking the beginning of widespread urban unrest and threatening law and order.
The wave of strikes during and after the Soweto uprising demonstrated, to a large extent, the influence Biko exerted on South African socio-political life. Although he did not directly take part in these uprisings, the influence of Black Consciousness ideas encouraged students to fight an unjust system - particularly after they were compelled to accept Afrikaans as a language for use in schools. In the wake of the urban revolt of 1976 and with the prospects of national revolution becoming increasingly real, the security police detained Biko, on 18 August 1977. At this time, Biko had begun studying law through the University of South Africa (UNISA).
He was thirty years old and was reportedly extremely fit when arrested. He was taken to Port Elizabeth but later transferred to Pretoria where he died in detention on 12 September 1977 as a result of brain injuries.
Thirteen Western nations sent diplomats to his funeral on 25 September. Police action prevented thousands of mourners from reaching the funeral venue from Johannesburg, Durban, Cape Town and other areas on the grounds that this would lead to lawlessness. Armed with FN rifles and machine guns, police erected and manned a number of roadblocks to prevent thousands of mourners from all over the country to converge on the town for the funeral of Steve Biko. Mourners from the Transvaal were barred from attending the funeral when permits were refused for buses. One of the speakers, Dr. Nthato Motlana, who flew from Johannesburg after he was blocked off when attempting to travel by road, said at the funeral that he had watched with disgust as Black police hauled mourners off the buses in Soweto and assaulted them with truncheons. The physician said he had treated 30 of the mourners, some for fractured skulls, and allegedly witnessed a number of young women being raped.
Biko was buried after a marathon funeral that was as much a protest rally against the White minority government's racial policies as it was a commemoration of the country's foremost Black leader. Several thousand Black mourners punched the air with clenched fists and shouted "Power!" as Biko's coffin was lowered into the grave. The crowd of more than ten thousand listened to successive speakers warning the government that Biko's death would push Blacks further towards violence in their quest for racial equality.
Due to local and international outcry, his death prompted an inquest which at first did not adequately reveal the circumstances surrounding his death. Police alleged that he died from a hunger strike; however independent sources said he was brutally murdered by police. Although his death was attributed to "a prison accident," evidence presented during the 15-day inquest into Biko's death revealed otherwise. During his detention in a Port Elizabeth police cell he had been chained to a grill at night and left to lie in urine-soaked blankets. He had been stripped naked and kept in leg-irons for 48 hours in his cell. A blow in a scuffle with security police led to him suffering brain damage by the time he was driven naked and manacled in the back of a police van to Pretoria, where he died.
Two years later a South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) disciplinary committee found there was no prima facie case against the two doctors who had treated Biko shortly before his death. Dissatisfied doctors, seeking another inquiry into the role of the medical authorities who had treated Biko shortly before his death, presented a petition to the SAMDC in February 1982, but this was rejected on the grounds that no new evidence had come to light. Biko's death caught the attention of the international community, increasing the pressure on the South African government to abolish its detention policies and calling for an international probe on the cause of his death. Even close allies of South Africa, Britain and the United States of America, expressed deep concern about the death of Biko and added their support to those asking for an international probe.
It took eight years and intense pressure before the South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) took disciplinary action. On 30 January, 1985, the Pretoria Supreme Court ordered the SAMDC to hold an inquiry into the conduct of the two doctors who treated Biko during the five days before he died. Judge President of the Transvaal, Justice W G Boshoff, said in a landmark judgment that there was prima facie evidence of improper or disgraceful conduct on the part of the "Biko" doctors in a professional respect.
He is survived by his two sons.
References
- Bernstein, H. (unknown), No. 46-Steve Biko [online]. South African History Online
- Mufson, S. (1990), Fighting Years: Black Resistance and the Struggle for a New South Africa, Boston: Beacon Press
- Ndlovu S. M. (1978), The Soweto Uprisings: Counter-memories of June 1976
- Woods Donald, Biko, New York: Paddington Press.
Biko's death: A Sequence of events whilst in detention 18 August-12 September 1977
August 18, Biko is arrestedSteve Biko was travelling in a car with a friend Peter Jones, an executive member of the BPC. The car was stopped outside the King William's Town at a roadblock, by Lieut. Oosthuizen of the Security Police. The two men were taken to Grahamstown; the next day they were taken to Walmer Jail, Port Elizabeth and held under Section 6 of the Terrorism Act, in the custody of the Security Police under the command of Colonel Goosen.He is kept naked in a cell for 20 daysFor the next twenty days Biko was kept at Walmer Police Station, naked, manacled, and not allowed out of his cell even for air or exercise. His daily ration of food was soup, magewu,* bread, jam and coffee.According to the sergeant in command, the soup and magewu were refused, and Biko ate little bread.September 2, Magistrate's visitOn 1 September a magistrate made a formal visit to Biko in his cell. Biko complained that he had not even been permitted to wash himself. He asked the magistrate for water and soap to wash himself and a washcloth and comb. He asked: "Is it compulsory that I have to be naked?I have been naked since I came here". The magistrate made no reply.September 6, interrogation room 619 Sanlam building in Port ElizabethOn the morning of 6 September, Biko was taken from the Walmer Street prison by security police, and brought to Room 619, Sanlam Building, for interrogation. The police state that they were with him from 10.30 a.m. until 6 p.m. From 6 p.m. he was in the care of the 'night squad' (led by Lt. Wilken) naked, handcuffed and with one leg chained to a grille.Room 619 at 7 A.M. on 7 SeptemberMajor Harold Snyman, head of the interrogation team of five, arrived at 7 a.m. and according to his statement, removed Biko's leg-irons and handcuffs. At this time, or very close to it, Biko received the blows that caused brain damage and resulted in his death five days later. The police were unable to continue their interrogation. Biko was again handcuffed and chained to the grille.7.30 A.M. 7 September, Biko already has brain damageColonel Goosen was informed that there had been an "incident". At 7.30 he arrived at Room 619 and spoke to Biko, who, he said, seemed incoherent and talked in a slurred manner. There was a visible swelling on his upper lip.9.30 A.M. Dr. Lang dives medical check-upThe district surgeon Dr. Lang was called in. He examined Biko in the presence of Col. Goosen. At the Colonel's request he made out a certificate that there was no evidence of any abnormality or pathology on Biko.Night of 7 September. Biko lies on mat, chained and in leg-ironsThe Security Police attempted once more to interrogate Biko, but he was totally unresponsive. For the rest of that day, and for that night, Biko lay on a mat on the office floor, manacled and chained by his leg as before.September 8, Dr. Lang comes and brings Dr. TuckerDr. Lang returned. Col. Goosen told him that Biko had not urinated during the past 24 hours, and had refused all offers of food. Lang re-examined Biko, and then requested that the chief district surgeon. Dr. B. J. Tucker, examine Biko with him. Although the trousers Biko had been wearing (for the interrogation) and the blankets were now soaked with urine. Dr. Lang noticed no change and Dr. Tucker did not question Biko. It was decided to transfer him to the prison hospital.Evening of 8 September, Biko is taken to prison hospitalA specialist physician Dr. Hersch, was consulted; it was agreed that a lumbar puncture should be performed. Biko was transferred to the prison hospital.Night of September 8, prison hospitalA warder stated that during the night of 8 September he twice found Biko lying in a bath, the first time clothed in a bath filled with water, the second time the bath was empty.September 9The lumbar puncture was performed early in the morning.September 10Hersch informed Lang that the lumbar puncture showed the cerebrospinal fluid to be bloodstained. It was decided to consult a neuro-surgeon, Mr. Keeley, by telephone; Keeley gave the opinion that there was no evidence of brain damage, but Biko should be kept under observation. He saw no reason why Biko should not be transferred back from hospital to the Security Police, provided he was kept under observation.September 11, Biko is taken back to a cellIn the morning the Security Police took Biko from the hospital, and bed, back to a cell at Walmer Police Station. He was left on a mat on the cement floor of the cell, naked under the blankets.He is found collapsedA few hours later a warder found Biko lying on the floor with foam at his mouth, and glassy-eyed. He informed Major Fischer, who phoned Col. Goosen.He is driven naked through the night to PretoriaDr. Tucker examined Biko at 3.20 p.m. and saw no objection to Goosen sending Biko on a journey of 740 miles by road to Pretoria. Naked and manacled, he was left lying on the floor of a Land-Rover, with nothing except a container of water.September 11-12, Pretoria prisonHe was carried into the prison hospital and left on the floor of a cell, without any medical records, 11 hours after leaving Port Elizabeth.September 12 ,Dr. Van Zyl gives intravenous dripSeveral hours later, a newly-qualified doctor, with no medical information about him other than that he was refusing to eat, ordered an intravenous drip.Biko diesSome time that night Biko died, unattended
Biko was transferred to the prison hospital.Night of September 8, prison hospitalA warder stated that during the night of 8 September he twice found Biko lying in a bath, the first time clothed in a bath filled with water, the second time the bath was empty.September 9The lumbar puncture was performed early in the morning.September 10Hersch informed Lang that the lumbar puncture showed the cerebrospinal fluid to be bloodstained. It was decided to consult a neuro-surgeon, Mr. Keeley, by telephone; Keeley gave the opinion that there was no evidence of brain damage, but Biko should be kept under observation. He saw no reason why Biko should not be transferred back from hospital to the Security Police, provided he was kept under observation.September 11, Biko is taken back to a cellIn the morning the Security Police took Biko from the hospital, and bed, back to a cell at Walmer Police Station. He was left on a mat on the cement floor of the cell, naked under the blankets.He is found collapsedA few hours later a warder found Biko lying on the floor with foam at his mouth, and glassy-eyed. He informed Major Fischer, who phoned Col. Goosen.He is driven naked through the night to PretoriaDr. Tucker examined Biko at 3.20 p.m. and saw no objection to Goosen sending Biko on a journey of 740 miles by road to Pretoria. Naked and manacled, he was left lying on the floor of a Land-Rover, with nothing except a container of water.September 11-12, Pretoria prisonHe was carried into the prison hospital and left on the floor of a cell, without any medical records, 11 hours after leaving Port Elizabeth.September 12 ,Dr. Van Zyl gives intravenous dripSeveral hours later, a newly-qualified doctor, with no medical information about him other than that he was refusing to eat, ordered an intravenous drip.Biko diesSome time that night Biko died, unattended.References
- Bernstein, H. (unknown), No. 46-Steve Biko [online]. South African History Online
- Mufson, S. (1990), Fighting Years: Black Resistance and the Struggle for a New South Africa, Boston: Beacon Press.
- Ndlovu S. M. (1978), The Soweto Uprisings: Counter-memories of June 1976.
- Woods Donald, Biko, New York: Paddington Press